Beowulf Background Information

The Anglo-Saxon Period

The Anglo-Saxon period is a significant part of the early Middle ages in Europe.  Between the first and the fifth centuries CE, England, then known as Britannia, was the frontier province of the Roman Empire.  The Britons, who spoke the Celtic language, rather quickly assimilated themsleves to Roman Civilization, even adopting Christianity in the fourth century, following the conversion of Emperor Constantine, who made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire.  Around 450 CE, however, Roman military units were forced to leave Britian to defend Rome itself from the invasions of the Goths, leaving the island susceptible to attacks by seafaring tribes.  Three Germanic tribes -- the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes -- migrated from the Northern European mainland and invaded England, occupying virtually every region within the British Isles.  Since the Anglo-Saxon invaders were pagans, Christianity quickly faded as a predominant religion.  In 597, however Pope Gregory sent a Benedictine monk, later known as St. Augustine of Canterbury, to England to convert the population.  Christianity again became the reigning religion among the British.  In the ninth century, other seafaring Germanic tribes, including the Danes, threatened to invade Britian.  They were eventually repelled when Alfred, King of the West Saxons, who united the Southern British tribes for the first time in defense of their homeland.

The History of the Beowulf Manuscript

Beowulf is widely considered to be the most significant Old English poem in existence.  It was likely composed in the eighth century CE, although the exact date of the poem's composition is still a point of contention among literary scholars.  The name of the author of Beowulf poem is unknown, in part due to the fact that the poem was transmitted orally for decades before being written down.  The earliest manuscript of Beowulf known to scholars was written in an Anglo-Saxon dialect during the tenth century.  Unfortunately, the Beowulf manuscript was severly damaged in a fire in 1731, before any handwritten duplicates of the text had been produced.  Consequently, the poem contains a series of sections that are no longer legible.  The Beowulf poem was composed in the tradition of ancient Germanic oral poetry, describing the heroic deeds and fantastic victories of its protagonist, Beowulf.  The poem's plot takes place during the early days of the Germanic migration, recounting the history of two tribes, the Danes and the Geats, and detailing victories won against military foes as well as monsters who threatened the stability of the Scandinavian homeland.

The Theme of Christianity vs. Paganism

The Beowulf poem presents a fascinating mix of Christian values and pagan traditions.  It is generally assumed that the Beowulf poet was a Christian, since the Christian conversion of England was virtually complete by the time the poem is believed to have been created.  Still, many of the poem's characters embraced pagan heroic ideals.  Hrothgar's kinsmen, for example, are still firmly rooted in the Germanic tradition of the heroic code, elevating blood relationships among their tribe above all else.  The Danes are described as ignorant to the existence of a Christian God:

They knew not the Almighty, the Arbiter of actions, the mighty Lord, nor did they pay mind to Heaven's Crown, the Wielder of Wonder. (Chapter II)

Yet, the Beowulf poet, as well as the poem's narrator, related the events occurring throughout the poem from a distinctly Christian perspective, clearly championing monotheism and referencing a biblical God.  God is presented as a protector of the good, a "shepard of our land," and a generous ruler over his people.  The main antagonist within the poem, the monster Grendel, is said to be a descendant of Cain.  The following description of Grendel's history illustrates how the poem merges Christian Philosophy and traditional mythology.

The Beowulf poet explains that Grendel

had long dwelled with monsters since he Creator had decreed his exile.  On the kind of Cain did the sovereign God avenge the slaughter of Able; Canin gained nothing from this feud and was driven far from the sight of men for that slaughter.  From him awoke all those dire breeds:  ogres, elves, and phantoms that warred with God a lengthy while.  (Chapter I)

Knowledge of the monster's heritage suggests a decidedly Christian symbolism of the fight between good and evil, God and the devil, in the combat between Beowulf and Grendal.

The Heroic Code

Beowulf was composed in the style of Germanic oral poetry, and thus, includes a wealth of references to the heroic code of the ancient Germanic warrior societies.  The heroic code dictates that the relationships between kinsmen of the same tribe must be founded on loyalty and respect.  It is a warrior's--or thane's--most important task to remain loyal to his lord and serve him without reservation.  The Beowulf poet references the heroic code as the underlying foundation of his society in virtually every chapter:  "Praiseworthy deeds are the ways to obtain honor in every clan."  (Prelude)

Within the system of the heroic code, treasure functions as a sign of mutual obligation:  If a warrior preforms a valuable service for his lord, he is richly rewarded with valuables and treasure.  When Beowulf volunteers to fight against Grendel to free Hrothgar and his kinsmen from Grendel's reign of terror, Hrothgar immediately promises to reward Beowulf for his heroism:  "I must grant the brave youth treasures for his greatheartedness."  (Chapter VI)  Once Beowulf has successfully slain the monster, Hrothgar promises to treat him as his own son and showers him with riches:

then did the son of Healfdene present to Beowulf a banner woven of gold as an ensign for the victory, an dembroidered flag of battle, a helmet and a coat of mail, and a precious sword that was seen by many when they brought it before the hero.  (Chapter XV)

The treasures heaped upon Beowulf not only show Hrothgar's sincere gratitude, but they also serve to remind Beowulf's own kinsmen that Hrothgar is an honorable leader, who understands the heroic code and has not sent Beowulf home empty-handed.  Beowulf's honor is as much a part of the treasure-giving ceremony as it demonstrates Hrothgar's honor as an effective and respectable leader.

The heroic code not only emphasizes courage and honor, but it also includes vengeance as an integral component of a warrior society.  Then kinsmn has been assaulted, his fellow tribesmen are expected to avenge his injury or death.  Failure to avenge an assault is condered shameful.  The only way to end the cycle of violence is through the payment of "blood gold" --the giving a treasure to end the feud between warring parties.  In Chapter VII, Hrothgar describes the practice of giving "blood gold" as he recounts a former threat to the relationship between two of the Scandinavian tribes:  "Directly did I settle the feud for a price, sending ancient treasure over the wave crest to the Wylfings, and he swore fealty to me."