Anglo-Saxon (Old English) Poetry

The Oral Tradition

Beowulf was composed in the tradition of Germanic oral poetry. Poems in this tradition were not originally written down but transmitted orally from gerneration to generation. Many of the Old English poems contain lengthy passages that repeatedly recount past heroic deeds or challenges faced by certain character or tribes. This repetitive recounting of past events helps to keep the history of the events and heroes of the past alive for the listening audience. In a pre-literate society, this oral tradition comprised both the literature and history of the people.

Oral poetry was usually performed by a bard, or scop, and recited on various occasions at court or during other social gatherings.

The Epic

Most Old English poems have characteristics of the Epic. Epic poetry generally deals with a serious subject and incorporates the adventures of a resilient hero who fights to defend the values of his culture. It often includes a battle between good and evil forces, cataloguing of weaponry, and supernatural intervention.

In the Beowulf poem, Beowulf is the hero, who volunteers to fight the terrible monster Grendel. He not only wants to gain honor in battle, but he sets out to defend the way of life of the Scandinavian tribes. During some of his legendary encounters, Beowulf does not use any weapons, fighting instead with his bare hands and without the protection of armor. During other fights, Beowulf uses legendary or supernatural weapons such as the sword, Hrunting, with which he attempts to kill Grendel's mother. Throughout his struggles to defeat Grendel, Grendel's mother, and the dragon, Beowulf often relies on supernatural intervention. His firm belief in a Christian God is continuously cited as the most significant factor leading to his remarkable victories.

Alliterative Verse and Caesura (suh·zyur·uh)

Old English poetry in its orginal form (i.e., not translated into Modern English) is rich with alliterative sounds. It is generally not possible to retain the alliterative structure when transforming the original Old English text into a modern prose rendition. However, on a few occasions, alliteration can be successfully retained. The effect emphasizes the most significant words in the sentence, for example:

A foundling was he when he first lay friendless; fate later brought him solace as he waxed in power and flourished in wealth. (Prelude)

Another hallmark of the Old English poetic structure is a Caesura, or pause, that was generally inserted in the middle of every line. Unfortunately, many of these significant aspects of Anglo-Saxon poetry cannot be successfully or faithfully replicated in translation.

Some examples of this ancient device include:

the opening line of Virgil's Aeneid--I sing of arms and the man, who first from the shores of Troy...
the opening line of an older translation of Beowulf--Lo! we Spear-Danes, in day of yore...
and this line from the medieval poem, Piers Plowman--I looked to the left, as the Lady instructed...

Vocabulary

Old English poetry is composed of a vocabulary that is rich in synonyms. It includes many different expressions to denote the same idea; most descriptive terms are closesly associated with the herioic code and warrior culture. For example, the poem incorporates a number of terms to describe the notion of a warrior as well as numerous terms for words such as sword, ruler, and shield.

Compound Words

Anglo-Saxon poetry make extensive use of kennings, compound words that provide a vivid, often symbolic understanding of the noun they replace. Kennings not only help to evoke a visual image of the item, person, or event being described, but they also often help the reader identify the poet's attitude toward the items, characters, or events he is describing. For example, in Chapter VIII, the poet uses the words "sea-realm" and "sea-street" to describe the ocean in which Beowulf was fighting the sea monsters. "Sea-realm" helps the reader conceive of the vastness of the water through which Beowulf swam in order to save his life. For a seafaring audience, the term "sea-street" evokes the idea of the sea as a medium for transportation. On several occasions, Hrothgar is referred to as the "ring-giver," indicating both his role as king and his obligation to reward those who serve him and that he is indeed a generaous ruler who always fulfuills this obligation. Thus, the reader can conclude that Hrothgar is a ruler who obeys the Germanic heroic code.

Names and Family Relationships

Throughout the poem, characters are rarely referred to by their given names. Instead, they are idenified through a designation of family roles and relationships. In that sense, Beowlf is often called the "son of Ecgtheow" while Hrothgar is referred to as the "shield of the Danes" as well as "the son of Healfdene." Using kinship relations when referring to characters is an important part of the Germanic oral tradition, since it helps listeners distinguish between characters and identify them by their roles.

Hrothgar, son of Healfdeane, is the king of the Danes, those living in what is now Denmark. Scylding is, essentially, the "family name" of the Danish "royal family." It roughly translates to "shield" or "shield-bearer." Thus, when the poet refers to Hrothgar as "the shield of the Danes," he is making both a literal and figurative statement.

The Geats, Beowulf's clan, are one of the tribes living in what is now Sweden. Thus, Beowulf's two-day sea journey is from Sweden, possible the island of Gotland (off the east coast of Sweden in the Baltic Sea), to eastern Denmark.

Beowulf's Estimated Family Tree

Hrethel (named in Chapter VI)

________________________________________________________________________________________|_________________________________________________________________________________

| | | |

Herebeald Haethcyn Hygelac (first mentioned in Chapter III) - (Hygd) (mentioned daughter (mentioned in Chapter VI)

in Chapter XXVII) - Ecgtheow (first mentioned in

| Chpater IV)

|-------------------------------------------------------------| |

| | |

Eofor - daughter (first mentioned Heardred (first mentioned in Beowulf

in Chapter XXXV) Chapter XXIX)